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By
Michael J. Cummings...©
2003
Introduction
.......Gallant
knights, beautiful princesses and clashing swords are the stuff of many
Shakespeare plays, notably his histories. King John, Henry V, Richard II,
Richard III, Macbeth—all title characters of Shakespeare plays—ruled in
Britain during the age of moats and drawbridges, when chain-mailed warriors
vied on foot and horseback for God, country and glory.
.......This
age of kings and castles, or the Feudal Age, was born in Europe in the
dawning shadows of the Dark Ages. After the Roman Empire collapsed in the
late Fifth Century A.D., its former territories in central Europe had to
fend for themselves. In time, without the might of the imperial Roman sword
to protect them, these territories fell prey to Viking invaders from the
north and Muslim invaders from the south.
 .......By
the 730's, the Muslims had penetrated central Europe through Spain. However,
Charles Martel, the ruler of the kingdom of the Franks in northeastern
Europe and southwestern Germany, repulsed the Muslims with soldiers granted
land in return for military service as horsemen. (Horse soldiers, or cavalry,
had the speed and maneuverability to quell the Muslim threat.) This arrangement–granting
land in exchange for service–was the founding principle of feudalism.
.......The
Franks continued to stand as a protective bulwark under Martel's successors,
Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. But after Louis I the Pious assumed power
in 813, the Franks commenced fighting among themselves over who should
succeed to the throne. This internal strife, along with Viking attacks,
resulted in the eventual breakup of the Frankish kingdom. In 911, Viking
marauders seeded themselves in western France, in present-day Normandy,
and took root. By the late 900's, much of Europe (France, England,
western Germany, northern Spain, and Sicily) had evolved into a land of
local kingdoms in which rulers took refuge behind the walls of castles
and leased land to people willing to protect and maintain a kingdom against
rival kingdoms or outside invaders. The feudal system of offering land
in exchange for service then bloomed to full flower.
How
Feudalism Worked
The
king of a domain granted an expanse of land (fief) to selected men
of high standing in return for a pledge of allegiance and military service.
These men, who came to be known as great lords (or grands seigneurs)
then awarded portions of their land to lesser lords, or vassals, for a
similar pledge of loyalty, or fealty, as well as dues and an agreement
to fight the lord's enemies. In return, the great lord met the everyday
needs of the vassals. Knights, highly trained mounted warriors, were the
backbone of the great lord's army. Failure by a great lord or a vassal
to live up to a commitment, or warranty, was a felony, a
crime punishable by loss of the offender's title, land, and other assets.
In severe cases, the offender sometimes lost his life or a limb.
.....What
a King or Great Lord Gave ---> Land
.....What
a King or Great Lord Received ---> Protection (Military Service)
The
Land and Its Workers
The
estate on which a lord lived was called a manor. Peasants, or serfs,
were attached to the land as property. They paid rents and taxes, farmed
the land and performed many other servile duties. Sometimes freemen also
worked the land. The lord exercised full political and social control over
his land.
...
What
Was a Castle?
A castle
was a walled fortress of a king or lord. The word castle is derived
from the Latin castellum, meaning a fortified place. Generally,
a castle was situated on an eminence (a piece of high ground) that
had formed naturally or was constructed by laborers. High ground constructed
by laborers was called a motte (French for mound); the motte
may have been 100 to 200 feet wide and 40 to 80 feet high. The area inside
the castle wall was called the bailey. Some castles had several
walls, with smaller circles within a larger circle or smaller squares within
a larger square.
The
outer wall of a castle was usually topped with a battlement, a protective
barrier with spaced openings through which defenders could shoot arrows
at attackers. This wall sometimes was surrounded by a water-filled ditch
called a moat, a defensive barrier to prevent the advance of soldiers,
horses and war machines. At the main entrance was a drawbridge,
which could be raised to prevent entry. Behind the drawbridge was a portcullis
[port KUL is], or iron gate, which could be lowered to further secure the
castle. Within the castle was a tower, or keep, to which castle
residents could withdraw if an enemy breached the portcullis and other
defenses. Over the entrance of many castles was a projecting gallery with
machicolations [muh CHIK uh LAY shuns], openings in the floor through
which defenders could drop hot liquids or stones on attackers. In the living
quarters of a castle, the king and his family dined in a great hall on
an elevated platform called a dais [DAY is], and they slept in a
chamber called a solar.
The
age of castles ended after the development of gunpowder and artillery fire
enabled armies to breach thick castle walls instead of climbing over them.
Commonly
Used Feudal Terms
accolade
[AK uh laid]: ceremony in which a squire was made a knight. The squire
received a kiss on a cheek or a touch on the shoulder with the flat of
a sword.
apprentice:
beginner in a medieval craft who learned his trade by working under a master
craftsman; the apprentice received food and lodging for his work
ashlar:
blocks of stone cut into squares that enabled application of thin mortar
joints
assize:
[uh SIZE] court held in England to try criminal and civil cases
bailey:
see above
baldric
[BAL drik]: belt worn across the chest to support a sword, dagger or horn
barbican[BAR
bih kin]: tower constructed at the drawbridge or gate of a castle to provide
increased security
battlement:
see above
beaver:
hinged metal flap on a knight's helmet that protects the chin and mouth;
it can be raised and lowered
black
death: outbreak of bubonic and pneumonic plague that killed between
one-third and two-thirds of the European population between 1347 and 1351.
blancmange:
[bluh MANJ] sweet dessert with a jelly-like texture
blazon[BLAY
zun]: description of a coat of arms or the coat of arms itself; armorial
shield
bodkin
[BOD kin]: dagger; knife, stiletto
braze:
make or coat something with brass
brazier:
[BRAY zher] craftsman who makes or coats something with brass
burgess
[BUR jihs]: citizen of a British borough
Camelot
[KAM uh lot]: legendary residence of King Arthur; seat of King Arthur's
court
castle:
see above
catapult
[KAT uh pult]: weapon which launched boulders and other projectiles over
castle walls
cathedral:
principal church of a bishop; coronation place of royalty
chain
mail: flexible metal armor
chamberlain
[CHAME ber lin]: manager of a sovereign or lord's household
chandler
[CHAND ler]: maker (or seller) of candles and products make of wax or tallow,
such as soap
chatelaine
[SHAT uh LAIN]: lord's wife, who had complete charge of the domestic affairs
of the castle
chausses:
[SHOSE] chain-mail armor for the legs and feet of a knight
chevalier:
[shuh VAL yay]: French word for knight
chivalry
[SHIV l re]: the exemplary conduct expected of a knight; a knight's code
of behavior
coat
of arms: coat or shield displaying symbols that told of the qualities
of the wearer and his family. For example, a lion signified bravery, and
a leopard stood for vigilance.
chronicler
[KRON ih kler]: recorder of medieval events; historian
courser:
fast and powerful horse favored by knights
crenelated:
[KREN uh LATE id] having spaced openings, as a battlement on a castle wall
Crusade:
military expedition undertaken to win back the Holy Land from the Moslems;
the Crusades took place between 1096 and 1300 A.D.
cuirass
[kwih RAHSS]: breastplate; armor protecting the chest and back
dais:
[DAY ihs]see above
Dame
: title of a knight's wife; title of a baronet's wife; title of a female
knight in modern times
damsel
[DAM zl]: maiden; young woman of noble heritage; unmarried woman
damoiseau
[duh MWAHZ oh]: French term for a page undergoing training
Dark
Ages: early part of the Middle Ages; (see Middle Ages)
demesne:
[dih MAIN] estate; land of a feudal lord
dirk:
dagger, knife, stiletto
Domesday
Book [DOOMS day book]: official census of the English people and their
possessions, notably land, which was completed in 1086 at the behest of
King William I (William the Conqueror)
draught
[draft]: a portion of liquid drawn from a container, such as a cask;
a glass of ale or beer
dray:
cart for pulling heavy loads
drayman:
man who drives a dray
drawbridge:
see above
dubbing:
conferring knighthood on a young man by tapping him on the shoulder with
a sword
dungeon
[DUN jun]: the castle's keep; also the cells within the keep for holding
prisoners
écuyer:
[ay koo YAY] French word for esquire
eminence:
see above
escheat:
legal action that bequeathed the lord of a manor the land of a tenant who
died without heirs; legal action that gave the lord of the manor the land
of a tenant convicted of a felony
esquire:
young candidate for knighthood who attends a knight and carries his shield
Excalibur
[ex KAL ih ber]: King Arthur's magical sword
eyre:
term used to descrbe the journey of a traveling judge who holds court in
various places
falconer:
trainer of hunting birds, such as falcons and hawks
fealty:
see above
felony:
see above
fief
[FEEF]: land worked by peasants on behalf of a vassal see
above
fool:
In the courts of England, a fool was a comic figure with a quick tongue
who entertained the king, queen and their guests. He was allowed to--and
even expected to--criticize anyone at court. Many fools, or jesters, were
dwarfs or cripples, their odd appearance enhancing their appeal and, according
to prevailing beliefs, bringing good luck to the court. Shakespeare wrote
many fools into his plays. Among them were the fool in King Lear
and Feste in Twelfth Night. William Kempe and Richard Armin became
London celebrities for their performances as fools in Shakespeare's plays.
Armin wrote a book about fools entitled Foole Upon Foole; or Six Sortes
of Sottes.
franklin:
free man of common birth who held land
free
lance: an independent warrior; a soldier for hire
friar:
male member of begging (mendicant) religious order, such as the Franciscans
and Dominicans
garderobe
[GARD robe]: toilet, privy, latrine
gauntlet
[GAWNT lit]: heavy glove worn with medieval armor to protect the hand
George,
Saint: patron saint of England and the Order of the Garter, England's
most important order of knights. A tale is told that he rescued the daughter
of a Libyan king by slaying a dragon.
goliard
[GAWL yerd]: wandering student of Medieval Europe who made merry and wrote
earthy or satiric verses in Latin. Goliards sometimes served as jesters
or minstrels
gorget
[GOR jit] metal covering in a suit of armor to protect the throat
greave:
armor covering the lower leg, from the knee to the angle
guild
[GILD]: union of workers in the same craft
gules
[GYOOLZ]: in heraldry, the color red. Example from Shakespeare: "Head to
foot now is he total gules; horridly trick'd with blood of fathers, mothers,
daughters, sons" (Hamlet to Polonius, Hamlet, Act II, Scene II).
haft:
handle of a weapon
halberd:
spear equipped with a battle-ax; halberds were used mainly between 1400
and 1600
hauberk:
[HAW berk] knight's protective tunic made of chain mail
herald:
(1) officer who carried messages for a king or an army; (2) authority
on family histories and coats of arms who announced jousting tournaments
and conducted royal ceremonies
heraldry:
art and science of tracing family histories through symbols on shields
and other objects
hilt:
handle of a sword or dagger
Holy
Grail: cup of Jesus sought by the Knights of the Roundtable
jongleur:
[The j is pronounced like the si in Asian; ong
is pronounced as in wrong: JONG lur] roving musician who sang and
recited poetry in France and Norman England
journeyman:
craftsman or tradesman sufficiently skilled to work for wages for a master;
worker whose ability was greater than an apprentice's but less than a master's
joust:
combat between mounted warriors armed with lances
jus
primae noctis [jus: y+the sound oo in wood+ s; primae:
PRE may; noctis: NOK tis] Latin term loosely translated as right
of the first night. A lord used this term to claim what he believed
was his right to sleep with the wife of a vassal on the first night after
the wedding. This so-called right is also referred to as droit du seigneur
(right of the lord).
keep:
see above
knappe:
German term for a page undergoing training; valet or varlet
knight-errant
[AIR int]: knight who roved in search of adventure
Knights
of the Holy Sepulchre: knights who received their dubbing in the Holy
Land at the tomb of Christ
Knights
of the Order of St. Lazarus: knights who protected leper hospitals
Knights-Templars
[TEM plers]: religious order of knights who protected pilgrims to the Holy
Land and fought the enemies of Christianity
Knights
of the Teutonic Order: German knights organized to serve in the Crusades
Lammas-tide:
harvest festival held in England on August 1. In Romeo and Juliet,
Lammas-tide is the day after Juliet's birthday (Lammas-eve), when she turns
14 (Act I, Scene III, Lines 14-15).
lance:
thrusting weapon with a wooden shaft and pointed metal head
liege
[LEEJ]: lord or sovereign; one entitled to the services of subjects
lists:
bounded field in which jousts were held; jousting arena
loophole:
narrow opening in the wall of a castle or another fortress through which
arrows could be fired or activity observed
machicolation:
[muh CHIK uh LAY shun] see above
Magna
Carta: document granted by King John in 1215 spelling out civil and
political liberties
manciple:
one who purchased supplies for a monastery, a manor, a college, or another
institution
manor:
land occupied and overseen by a lord and worked by peasant farmers
marshal:
official in charge of horses and stables
master
craftsman: expert at his craft; worker at the top of his profession
who trained novices
medieval
[me de E vl]: pertaining to the Middle Ages; (see Middle Ages)
Middle
Ages: period of history beginning about 400 A.D. and lasting until
1500 A.D.; period between ancient and modern eras
miller:
operator of a flour mill
minstrel
[MIN strl]: roving medieval musician who sang and recited poetry
moat:
see above
monk:
male member of a religious order living in a monastery who observed a strict
lifestyle to bring himself close to God
motte:
see above
ordeal:
severe test to determine the guilt or innocence of an alleged criminal
Order
of the Garter: most important order of English knights, founded
in 1348 by King Edward III
oriel:
window that projects out from a wall; bay window
oubliette
[oo ble ET]: underground cell (dungeon) whose only access is through a
trap door in the ceiling. Oubliette is derived from the French word oublier
(oo ble ay), meaning to forget.
page:
boy who attended a knight and ranked behind a squire
palfrey:
fine riding horse favored by women
pauldron
[PAWL drun] metal covering in a suit of armor to protect the shoulder
petard
[pih TARD] container of explosives used to blow a hole through the wall
or gate of a castle (or any other building)
pilgrim:
person who traveled to pray at a religious shrine
plate
armor: iron or steel plate in a suit of armor
poacher:
one who hunted on another's land. Poachers who were caught were put to
death for harvesting another man's meat, especially if the other man was
the king.
portcullis:
see above
postern:
entrance other than the main one; back door; secondary gate
primogeniture:
right of the oldest son in a family to inherit his father's property. (See
also ultimogeniture.)
quintain
[QUIN tain, QUIN tn]: target for jousting practice
reeve:
supervising officer of an English town; supervising peasant of a manor
ritter:
German word for knight
sap:
Narrow trench dug to undermine a fortress wall
scutage
[SKYOO tij]: tax payment in lieu of military service
seignior
[sane YOR]: feudal lord
sheriff
: principal officer or overseer of an English shire. The word derives from
shire (see shire in this glossary) and reeve (see
reeve in this glossary. The pronunciation of these two words together
(shire-reeve) evolved into sheriff.
shire:
in England, an administrative unit similar to the modern county
siege
[SEEJ]: encirclement of a castle to cut off supplies and/or to prepare
for an assault
Sir
: title of respect preceding the name of a knight
solar:
see above
squire:
aspiring knight who attended a knight and was second in rank to a knight
stot:
animal (such as an ox or a horse) used for plowing
surcoat
[SER kote]: tunic, or loose-fitting garment, worn by a knight over his
armor
suzerain
[SOO zuh rain]: lord or baron to whom others pledge allegiance
tabard
[TAB erd]: (1) knight's short-sleeved cloak with his coat of arms; (2)
herald's coat, showing the arms of his lord; (3) pennant hanging from
a trumpet
tapestry
[TAP ih stree]: heavy woven cloth displaying pictures or intricate designs;
a tapestry usually adorned a wall
tilting:
see joust
torche-culs
[TORSH KUL]: toilet paper of straw
trebuchet
[TREB yoo shet]: engine of war with a long wooden arm that could hurl heavy
stones and other missiles. At the end of the arm was sling or spoon that
held the missile. Under tension, the arm was held down. When the tension
was released, the arm hurled the missile,
troubadour
[TROO buh dor]: lyric poet/musician of southern France or northern
Italy; minstrel
ultimogeniture:
[ALL tih moh JEN ih chur] right of the youngest son in a family to inherit
his father's property
valet
[VAL ay]: page; knight's personal attendant
varlet
[VAR lit]: page; knight's personal attendant
vassal:
see above
victuals
[vittles]: food; a meal
villein
[VIL en]: peasant who was legally free in his relations with ordinary folk
but remained a slave to his lord
warranty:
see above
wassail!:
[WAHS uhl] drinking toast
wheelwright:
craftsman who makes and repairs wheels on horse-drawn vehicles
yeoman
[YOH min]: (1) land-holding independent farmer; (2) attendant or servant
of a royal or noble family; (3) an assistant of a sheriff or another officer
Common
Occupations
.
Actor.Man
or boy who performs in a stage play. In Shakespeare's time, males acted
both male and female parts in a play.
Acrobat.Entertainer
who performs various gymnastic stunts, such as leaps and somersaults. Also
called tumbler.
Apothecary.Person
who sells drugs and herbs
Armorer.Person
who makes armor for soldiers
Astrologer.Person
who predicted events by "reading" the stars, the planets, the sun, and
the moon
Baker.Person
who prepared bread, pastry, and other baked goods
Barber-Surgeon.Person
who cuts hair, trims beards, cleans and pulls teeth, amputates limbs, and
performs bloodletting
Bard.Poet
or storyteller
Barrister.Lawyer
who settles estates and handles land disputes, money claims, etc.
Bawd.Keeper
of a brothel
Beadle.Minor
church official who kept order during services and performed menial tasks;
messenger for law courts
Bellmaker.Maker
of bells
Blacksmith.Person
who makes horseshoes and other objects from iron heated in a forge, then
shaped, welded, or cut with various tools
Boatman.Boat
operator
Bookbinder.Binder
of published manuscripts, journals, diaries, etc.
Bowyer (or Bower, Boyer).Person
who makes bows that shoot arrows
Brazier.Maker
of brass objects
Brewer.Maker
of beer and ale
Butcher.Person
who cuts meat
Carpenter.Person
who makes and repairs items of wood
Cartographer.Maker
of maps
Chancellor.Secretary
of a person of high rank
Chandler.Person
who makes candles from wax or tallow
.
Chapman.Operator
of a warehouse; trader, peddler, merchant
Chimney Sweep (or Sweeper).Person
who cleans soot from chimneys
Clerk.Keeper
of accounts and records
Clockmaker.Person
who makes and repairs clocks
Clothier.Maker
of fine clothes for the well-to-do
Cocker.Person
who breeds, trains, and handles fighting roosters, or cocks
Constable.Officer
of a court or royal household; castle or fortress warden
Cook.Preparer
of food in a household
Cooper.Person
who makes barrels
Coppersmith.Person
who makes, repairs, and repairs items of copper
Cordwainer.Shoemaker
Crier.Person
who walks the streets ringing a bell as he shouted news and proclamations
Currier.Person
who prepares tanned leather by soaking, scraping, coloring, or beating
it
Cutler.Person
who makes, sells, sharpens, and repairs knives
Draper.Dealer
in clothes or drapes
Drayer or Drayman.Person
with a horse-drawn cart for transporting heavy loads
Dyer.Person
who dyes cloth
Embroiderer.Person
who uses needlework to make designs on fabric
Factor.Person
who makes business transactions for another person; agent
Falconer.Person
who breeds and trains hunting falcons and hawks; person who hunts with
falcons and hawks
Farrier.Blacksmith
who specializes in making horseshoes
Fishwife.Woman
who sells fish
Fletcher.Person
who makes arrows
Fool.Comic
figure with a quick tongue who entertains the king, the queen, and their
guests. He is allowed to–and even expected to–criticize anyone at court.
In Shakespeare's time, Many fools were dwarfs or cripples, their odd appearance
enhancing their appeal and, according to prevailing beliefs, bringing good
luck to the court. Actors William Kempe and Richard Armin became London
celebrities for their performances as fools in Shakespeare's plays. Armin
wrote a book about fools entitled Foole Upon Foole; or Six Sortes of
Sottes.
Forester.Person
who supervises the woods of a landowner. He sells timber and guards against
trespassers.
Fowler.Person
who hunts and sells game birds to kitchens
Franklin.Landowner
in the 13th and 14th Centuries who was not of noble birth
Fuller.Person
who cleanses, thickens, and fulls cloth. To full cloth means to
make it fuller by pleating or gathering.
Furbisher.Person
who polished or burnished various objects
Gardener.Person
skilled at tending gardens
Grocer.Person
who sold foods and general household supplies
Glazier.Person
who cuts and installs glass for windows
Glover.Maker
of gloves
Goldsmith.Person
who makes, repairs and sells items of gold
Gravedigger.Person
who digs graves
Groom.Male
servant in a household; man or boy who tends, feeds, and cleans (with a
currycomb) horses in a stable
Haberdasher.Person
who sells men's clothing
Hatmaker.Person
who makes hats
Hawker.Person
who breeds and trains hunting hawks; person who hunts with hawks; falconer
Herbalist.Person
who grows, sells, or studies herbs, mainly for use as medical remedies
Herald.Person
who announces official declarations, edicts, news, etc.; carrier of messages
for the crown; arranger and announcer of jousting matches; overseer of
armorial bearings (images on shields)
Hosier.Maker
of socks and stockings (hosiery)
Husbandman.Farmer
Innkeeper.Person
who owned or hosted an inn
Ironmonger.Dealer
in hardware
Jeweler.Person
who makes, repairs, and sells items of jewelry
Joiner.Person
who makes cabinets, furniture, interior woodwork, doors, window sashes,
and other wooden objects
Jester.See
Fool
Latten Maker.Maker
of thin sheets of brass or an alloy. Latten was used to make church vessels
and utensils.
Laundress.Woman
who washes clothes
Lawyer.Person
trained in the law
Limner.Person
who paints or draws portraits
Locksmith.Person
who makes keys and installs and repairs locks
Lorimer.Maker
of metal parts for harnesses and other riding gear
Maid.Female
servant, such as barmaid, chambermaid, milkmaid, or housemaid
Marshal.Person
in charge of a castle's or a household's horses and wagons
Mattress Maker.Maker
of mattresses
Mercer.Dealer
in well-made woven, knitted, and other fabrics; some mercers specialized
in a particular cloth, such as silk or wool
Midwife.Woman
who delivers babies
Milkmaid.Woman
who milks cows; dairymaid; vendor of milk
Minstrel.Traveling
musician who sang or recited to the accompaniment of an instrument
Moneylender.Person
who lends money at interest
Monger.Roving
merchant who sells goods from a cart or another portable device. Examples:
fishmonger, ironmonger
Ostler.Operator
of an inn that rents rooms and stable space and serves food and drink
Painter.Artist
who paints portraits, landscapes, etc.
Peddler.Itinerant
seller of merchandise
Pewterer.Person
who makes and repairs items of pewter
Physician.Medical
doctor
Playwright.Person
who writes plays
Porter.Doorkeeper,
gatekeeper
Poulterer.Dealer
in poultry and other game
Printer.Person
who sets type in a form for printing; owner of printing business
Purser.Ship
officer who keeps financial accounts and secures valuables for passengers
Reeve.Chief
officer of a town or manor
Roper.Maker
of ropes
Salter.Person
who sells salt or salts meat, fish, and other food
Sawyer.Person
who saws wood for construction
Schoolmaster.Teacher
of children
Scribe.Person
who copies manuscripts by hand and prepares handwritten documents
Sculptor.Person
who fashions artistic objects from stone, clay, metal, and other media
Seamstress.Woman
who sews for a living
Searcher.Person
who identifies victims of plague and quarantines their houses
Servant.Person
who carries out routine household chores
Shepherd.Person
who herds and watches over sheep
Salter.Person
who deals in salt or salts foods such as meat and fish
Sheriff.Important
civil officer of a shire (county)
Shipwright.Carpenter
who builds and repairs ships
Shoemaker.Person
who makes and repairs shoes; cordwainer
Sieve Maker.Maker
of sieves (strainers or sifters)
Silversmith.Person
who makes, repairs, and sells items of silver
Slater.Person
who lays slate on roofs
Soapmaker.Person
who makes soap
Spoonmaker.Maker
of spoons
Spurrier.Maker
of spurs
Stapler.Person
who sorts wool according to its staple (the length, texture, and quality
of its fibers); buyer and seller of wool, linen, and silk
Stationer.Publisher
of books. Stationers belonged to a guild (the Worshipful
Company of Stationers) which the government established and supervised
in order to guard against the publication of subversive books or books
unduly critical of the Crown. When one stationer acquired the rights to
publish copies of a book, the other members were bound to respect this
"copy right," preparing the way for modern copyright laws.
Stonecutter.Person
who cuts, shapes, and carves stone; stonemason
Tailor.Person
who makes clothing
Tanner.Person
turns hides into leather by soaking it in tannin, a chemical that prevents
the skin from decaying
Tapster.Bartender
Taverner.Person
who maintains a tavern
Thatcher.Person
who thatches (covers roofs with straw or other plant material)
Tinker.Traveling
handyman who repairs household items, such as pots and pans; person who
can repair almost anything; jack-of-all trades
Trader.Businessman
involved in importing and exporting various supplies and merchandise
Tranter.Peddler
who sells his wares from a horse-drawn cart
Tumbler.Entertainer
who performs handsprings, somersaults, and other feats requiring physical
agility
Turner.Person
who shapes wooden objects, such as table legs, on a lathe (a machine that
holds and rotates wood while it is pressed against an abrasive surface)
Verger.Official
who bears the symbol of authority, such as a rod or staff, of a bishop
or dean in a procession
Vintner.Person
who makes and sells wine
Warrener.Person
who breeds or catches rabbits
Weaver.Person
who makes cloth
Wheelwright.Person
who makes and repairs wagon, cart, and carriage wheels
Wiredrawer.Person
who draws metal into wire
Woodcarver.Person
who carves wood to make it decorative
Page.Boy
servant; boy attending a knight or a boy in training to become a knight
Puppeteer.Person
who stages puppet shows
Saddler.Maker
of saddles and bridles
Skinner.Person
who removes the skins of animals and prepares them for sale; seller of
hides
Tiler.Person
who installs roof tiles
Washerwoman.Woman
who washes clothes
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